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Articolul si alti determinanti (The Article and other Determiners) - engleza



Articolul si alti determinanti (The Article and other Determiners) - engleza


Articolul si alti determinanti (The Article and other Determiners) - engleza


1. Categoria determinarii


1.1. Categoria determinarii a aparut in limba engleza, ca si in limba romana, din necesitatea de a indica un element unic (the Danube) sau specific (this man) dintr-o categorie, sau de a denumi o intreaga categorie de elemente de acelasi fel (The lion is a strong animal).

In limba engleza exista mai multe parti de vorbire care pot determina un substantiv: the first two students. Ele formeaza in gramatica structuralista clasa determinantilor, care este subdivizata in predeterminanti, determinanti propriu-zisi si postdeterminanti.



Aceasta terminologie a fost stabilita pe baza categoriei gramaticale pe care o reprezinta aceste cuvinte pe langa substantiv (determinarea) si pe baza pozitiei pe care o ocupa unul fata de altul: Half (predeterminant) the (determinant propriu-zis) second (postdeterminant) chapter.


1.2. Determinantii propriu-zisi. In calasa determinantilor propriu-zisi intra articolul si alte parti de vorbire care pot inlocui articolul inaintea unui substantiv: adjectivul demonstrativ (this, that, these, those), adjectivul posesiv (my, your, his etc.), adjectivul nehotarat (each, every, either etc.) si unele adjective interogative (what, which) si negative (no, neither):

a book

the book

no book

each book

every book

either book

this book

my book

what book


Determinantii propriu-zisi ai substantivului


Determinantul

Exemple

Articolul hotarat

Articolul nehotarat

Articolul zero

the man

a tree; an apple

men; trees, apples

Adjectivul demonstrativ

this newspaper, that magazine

these articles, those papers

Adjectivul posesiv

my house; your car; his watch; her dress;

its tail; our school; their classroom.

Adjectivul interogativ

What book do you want ?

Which books do you want ?

Whose book do you want ?

Adjectivul nehotarat

Each pupil, every day, either side;

some books; any students;

no children; neither student.


pag: 098


Articolul ocupa un loc central in cadrul determinantilor, neavand alta functie decat cea de determinare a substantivului. Alti determinanti pot functiona independent de substantivele pe care le preceda, ca pronume:

I want this/some. What is this ?

Pe langa determinantii propriu-zisi, substantivele mai pot fi precedate si de alte clase de cuvinte: predeterminanti, numerale cardinale si ordinale / cuantificatori (post determinanti).

Aceste doua clase au fost stabilite pe baza pozitiei lor fata de determinanti in relatie unul cu altul.


1. Predeterminantii. Predeterminantii se numesc astfel deaorece ei apar inaintea determinantilor:

a) all the books

both my books

half these books


b) double the / these amount

twice the / these amount

three times the / these amount


c) ine-third the time

three quarters the / these amount


Cand sunt urmati de substantive, predeterminantii pot aparea in trei constructii:

all of the children

all the children

all children


both of the teachers

both the teachers

both teachers


Cand determinantii sunt urmati de pronume, constructia cu of este obigatorie: all of them, both of them, half of it.

Predeterminantii all, both si half pot fi folositi si ca pronume:

All understood the teacher’s explanation.

Both understood the teacher’s explanation.

Half understood the teacher’s explanation.


In cazul lui all, se foloseste determinantul zero in cazul substantivelor numarabile la plural folosite generic: All the pupils went into the classroom. Dar: All soldiers must wear uniforms (generic).


pag: 099


All poate fi de asemenea folosit cu articolul zero in expresii ca: all (the) day / morning / night, in special intr-un context negativ: I haven’t seen her all day:

Ca determinant, all precede:

a) substantive (ne)numarabile concrete (rar) sau abstracte la singular, avand sensul de intreg, tot:

She interrupted him all the time. Il intrerupea tot timpul.

He didn’t spend all his money. Nu si-a cheltuit toti banii.

He hasn’t read all the story.

He hasn’t read the whole story.

b) substantive numarabile la plural, avand sensul de toti, toate:

Where are all your books ? Unde sunt toate cartile tale ?

All poate fi folosit atat ca predeterminant cat si ca pronume nehotarat: Have you drunk all the milk ? Ai baut tot laptele ? Have you seen all ? Ai vazut tot ? All (the) people came in time. All (of them) were punctual.

Both. Both inseamna amandoi, amandoua, fiind folosit pentru referirea la doua persoane (accentuat): Both children are very quit. Amandoi copiii sunt foarte tacuti.

Both poate fi folosit atat ca predeterminant: Both (of) these features are very important.

cat si ca pronume: Both are important.

Half. Half (jumatate) este folosit atat cu substantive nenumarabile: He didn’t say a word half the time he stayed there.

cat si ca substantive nenumarabile: Half the students in the student hostel were asleep. Half este folosit ca:

- predeterminant: half the book

- substantiv: Your half is bigger than mine.

- pronume nehotarat: half (of them) left.


Numeralele multiplicative (vezi & 4.7.) sunt incluse in clasa predeterminantilor, deoarece ele pot fi asezate inaintea determinantilor: twice the amount, double that price.

La fel si numeralele fractionare (vezi &4.5.), care pot avea si constructii cu of, in mod similar cu all, both si half:

The vegetables boiled in one third (of) the time the meat did.


1.4. Postdeterminantii. Ordinalele sunt postdeterminanti. Ele urmeaza determinantii in grupul nominal, dar preced cuantificatorii si adjectivele: The first three important events.

In clasa ordinalelor intra:

a) numeralele ordinale: first, second, third, fourth etc.

b) (an)other, next, last.

Cuantificatorii urmeaza determinantii si ordinalele si preced adjectivele: The first three important events.

Din clasa cuantificatorilor fac parte:

a)     numeralele cardinale: one, two, three, four, five, etc.


pag: 100


b) cuantificatorii, cuvintele care exprima numarul (many, few, several) sau cantitatea (much, little) in mod nedefinit.

Cuatificatorii sunt folositi:

a) numai cu substantive numarabile:

many children a great number of children

few children a large number of children

several children a good number of children

b) numai cu substantive nenumarabile:

much time a great/good deal of money

little time a great/good deal of money

a little time great/good deal of money

much time a large/small quantity/amount of money

little time a large/small quantity/amount of money

a little time a large/small quantity/amount of money


c) cu substantive numarabile sau nenumarabile (in exprimarea familiara):

a lot of children/money

lots of children/money

plenty of children/money


Much = mult, multa se foloseste mai ales in propozitii interogative si negative: There isn’t much sugar left. Nu a ramas mult zahar.

In propozitii afirmative se foloseste: very much, a lot of, a great deal of, a large (small) amount of, plenty of:

There is a lot of sugar in the sugar basin. Este (foarte) mult zahar in zaharnita.

There is very much sugar in the sugar basin. Este (foarte) mult zahar in zaharnita.

There is plety of sugar in the sugar basin. Este foarte mult zahar in zaharnita.


Little inseamna putin, putina, indica o cantitate insuficienta, implica o apreciere negativa: She eats little bread. Ea mananca putina paine (aproape deloc).

A little indica o cantitate mica, dar suficienta si implica o apreciere pozitiva: I eat a little bread. Mananc ceva paine.

Many = multi, multe se foloseste mai ales in propozitii interogative si negative: Did he read many English books ? A citit multe carti englezesti. I have not invited many people to my birthday party. N-am invitat multa lume la ziua mea de nastere.

In propozitii afirmative se foloseste very many, a lot of, a great / large number, lots of:

He’s read a lot of English books.

He’s read very many English books.

He’s read a great number of English books.

He’s read lots of English books.


Few = putini, putine indica un numar insuficient si implica o apreciere negativa: Few people live to be a hundred. Putini oameni traiesc 100 de ani.

A few = cativa, cateva indica un numar mic, dar suficient si implica o apreciere pozitiva: There are few flowers in the vase. Sunt cateva flori in vaza.

Several este folosit pentru mai mult de doua persoane:

He read several books on Dacia. El a citit mai multe carti despre Dacia.

He read several books on Dacia. El a citit cateva carti despre Dacia.


pag: 101


2. Articolul (The Article)


2.1. Definitie. Articolul este partea de vorbire care:

a) constituie un mijloac de individualiza a obiectelor si fenomenelor intr-un context lingvistic sau situational;

b) nu are forme flexionare, fiind neflexibil din punct de vedere morfologic;

c) indeplineste functia de determinant.

Articolul ocupa un loc central in cadrul determinantilor, fiind considerat determinantul propriu-zis. Aceasta se datoreaza faptului ca articolul nu poate fi o parte de vorbire independenta, el contribuind doar la determinarea unica sau individuala a substantivului pe care il insoteste.

Articolul este redat prin articolul hotarat the, articolul nehotarat a sau an sau prin articolul zero. Aceste articole se folosesc pentru a realiza: 1) referinta unica (unique reference) si 2) referinta individuala (individual reference).


2.2. 1) Articolul se foloseste pentru referinta unica atunci cand se identifica cu un membru anume al unei clase: The boy was running very fast. Baiatul alerga foarte repede.


2. 2) Articolul se foloseste pentru referinta individuala cand referirea se face la orice membru al unei clase, fara ca acesta sa fie identificat in mod unic.

Pentru referinta unica, se foloseste articolul hotarat pentru substantive numarabile si nenumarabile:


Where is the book I gave you ?

Where are the books I gave you ?

Where is the chalk I gave you ?


Pentru referinta individuala, se folosesc:

- articolul nehotarat a(n), cu substantive numarabile la singular:

There is a book on the table.

There is an orange on the table.


- articolul zero sau some/any, cu substantive numarabile la plural si substantive nenumarabile:

There are (some) books on the table.

There is (some) salt on the table.


Atentie! Articolul se foloseste generic cand unei clase de elemente i se atribuie o proprietate; folosirea generica are in vedere clasa si nu anumiti membri ai clasei: Boys like to play football. Baietilor le place sa joace fotbal. A boy runs faster than a girl. Un baiat alearga mai repede decat o fata. The tiger lives in the jungle. Tigrul traieste in jungla.

Substantivele folosite generic nu au distinctia de numar deoarece ele denumesc ceea ce este tipic, general pentru membrii unei clase. De aceea, folosirea generica apare cu cele trei articole:


pag: 102


a) articolul hotarat the, articolul nehotarat a(n) sau articolul zero pentru substantivele numarabile:

The cow gives us milk.

A cow gives us milk.

Cows give us milk.


b) articolul zero pentru substantivele nenumarabile: Milk is good for our health.


2.4. Numele proprii si referinta unica. Numele proprii sunt substantivele cu referinta unica prin excelenta, deoarece ele sunt considerate membri unici ai clasei din care fac parte: Helen, Mount Everest, the Danube, France, Monday.

Prin aceasta, numele proprii se deosebesc de substantivele comune:

a) se scriu cu litera mare: Mr. Thomson, the English Channel, the Haque.

b) nu au contrastul articulat-nearticulat: unele nume proprii sunt folosite cu articolul zero, altele sunt folosite cu articolul the, fara sa existe o opozitie intre ele: Australia, Italy, Bucharest, Windsor Castle.

c) numele proprii nearticulate primesc articol cand se intentioneaza restrangerea referintei la un anumit timp sau loc care identifica, numele printr-o propozitie relativa restrictiva, o constructie prepozitionala cu of sau una provenita dintr-o propozitie relativa restrictiva:

in Romania

in the Romania of today

Bucharest

the Bucharest I like

Eminescu

the young Eminescu

in Victorian England

in the England of Queen Victoria


Articolul hotarat (The Definite Article)


1. Forma articolului hotarat. Articolul hotarat are forma unica the.

The se pronunta [_tz_a_]

a) inaintea sunetelor consonantice: the pupil; the house;

b) inaintea sunetelor semiconsonantice, reprezentate de obicei prin literele u, y, w: the university, the window, the year, the one.

The se pronunta [_tz_i(:)]

a) inaintea sunetelor vocalice: the artists;

b) inaintea lui h mut: the hour; the honest man;

the honour; the heir;


c) pronuntarea [_tz_i:] este de asemenea folosita pentru subliniere: These are the facts.


2. Functiile articolului hotarat. Articolul hotarat este folosit pentru a exprima referinta unica. El indeplineste mai multe functii. Acestea sunt:

1) functia deictica, cu substantive a caror referinta este imediat inteleasa de vorbitorii limbii, ea fiind specific in contextul situational al comunicarii.

Anumite substantive au determinare deictica in contexte situationale.

De exemplu:


a) intr-o incapere: the door, the window, the table, the radiator.

Close the window, will you ? Inchide fereastra, te rog.

b) intr-o padure: the wind, the sky, the ground etc.

The ground is covered with dry leaves. Pamantul este acoperit cu frunze uscate.


pag: 103


c) intr-un oras: the townhall, the police station, the railway station, the hospital: Can you tell me how to get to the townhall ? Puteti sa-mi spuneti cum sa ajung la primarie ?

d) intr-o tara: the radio, the press, the telephone: What’s on the radio at eight o’clock ? Ce program este la radio la ora 8 ?

e) in univers: the sun, the moon, the earth:

The earth moves round the sun. Pamantul se invarteste in jurul soarelui.


2) functia anaforica, cu substantive determinate definitiv prin mentionarea anterioara: I bought a book yesterday. The book is intersting. Am cumparat o carte ieri. Cartea este interesanta.

3) functia cataforica, cand determinarea definita apare dupa substantiv, fiind exprimata printr-o propozitie relativa restrictiva sau printr-o constructie prepozitionala provenita dintr-o propozitie relativa restrictiva: The man who is driving the red car is our English teacher. Omul care conduce masina rosie este profesorul nostru de engleza. The man (who is) in the red car is our English teacher. Omul din masina rosie este profesorul nostru de engleza.

4) functia generica, cand substantivul este folosit in sensul sau cel mai general, ca reprezentant al unei clase. In aceasta functie the insoteste substantive numarabile la numarul singular: The horse is a useful animal. Calul este un animal folositor. The wild elephant can be found in some parts of Africa. Elefantul salbatic poate fi gasit in unele zone din Africa.

5) cu nume proprii:


Numele proprii sunt precedate de obicei de articolul hotarat cand structura lor intra si un adjectiv sau substantiv folosit adjectival: The United Kingdom, the United States, the Art Gallery;

sau o constructie prepozitionala postpusa (cu of): The University of Bucharest , the Houses of Parliament;

In aceste cazuri, articolul the este folosit chiar daca unul dintre cele doua elemente este omis: the (river) Thames, the Tate (Gallery), the Pacific (Ocean), the Mediterranean (Sea), the Intercontinental (Hotel).

Articolul hotarat se foloseste cu urmatoarele clase de nume proprii:

a) substantive la plural: the Browns - familia Brown; the Nertherlands - Olanda the Alps - Alpii.

b) denumiri geografice:

- nume de rauri: The Danube, the Olt;

- nume de mari si oceane: the Black Sea, the Atlantic Ocean;

- nume de canaluri: the Suez Canal, the Panama Canal;

- nume de deserturi, golfuri, capuri: The Sahara, The persian Gulf, the Cape of Good Hope.

c) nume de institutii:

- hoteluri si restaurante: the Lido, the Berlin Restaurant;

- teatre, cinematografe, cluburi: The National Theatre, the Capitol Cinema;

- muzee, bliblioteci:The British Museum, the National History Museum;

d) nume de ziare: The Times, The Daily Telegraph, The Guardian. Numele de reviste au de obicei articolul zero: Life, English Language Teaching Journal.

e) nume de vase: The Transylvania.


pag: 104


Tara sau continentul

Adjectiv

Substantiv



Folosire individuala

Folosire generica



Singular

Plural

Plural

China

Chinese

a Chinese

Chinese

the Chinese

Japan

Japanase

a Japanese

Japanese

the Japanese

Portugal

Portuguese

a Portuguese

Portuguese

the Portuguese

Switzerland

Swiss

a Swiss

Swiss

the Swiss

Vietnam

Vietnamese

a Vietnamese

Vietnamese

the Vietnamese

Israel

Israeli

an Israeli

Israelis

the Israelis

Pakistan

Pakistani

a Pakistani

Pakistanis

the Pakistanis

Africa

African

an African

Africans

the Africans

America

American

an American

Americans

the Americans

Asia

Asian

an Asian

Asians

the Asians

Australia

Australian

an Australian

Australians

the Australians

Italy

Italian

an Italian

Italians

the Italians

Belgium

Belgian

a Belgian

Belgians

the Belgians

Brazil

Brazilian

a Brazilian

Brazilians

the Brazilians

Europe

European

a European

Europeans

the Europeans

Germany

German

a German

Germans

the Germans

Greece

Greek

a Greek

Greeks

the Greeks

Hungary

Hungarian

a Hungarian

Hungarians

the Hungarians

Norway

Norwegian

a Norwegian

Norwegians

the Norwegians

Denmark

Danish

a Dane

Danes

the Danes (Danish)

Finland

Finish

a Finn

Finns

the Finns (Finish)

Poland

Polish

a Pole

Poles

the Poles (Polish)

Spain

Spanish

a Spaniard

Spaniards

the Spaniards (Spanish)

Sweden

Swedish

a Swede

Swedes

the Swedes (Swedish)

Arabia

Arabic

an Arab

Arabs

the Arabs

England

English

an Englishman

Englishmen

the English Englishmen

France

French

a Frenchman

Frenchmen

the French Frenchmen

Holland

Dutch

a Dutchman

Dutchmen

the Dutch

the Netherlands

Dutch

a Dutchman

Dutchmen

the Dutch Dutchmen

Ireland

Irish

an Irishman

Irishmen

the Irish Irishmen

Wales

Welsh

a Welshman

Welshmen

the Welsh Welshmen

Britain

British

a Briton

Britons

the British Britons

Scotland

Scots

a Scotsman

Scotsmen

Scotsmen

Scotland

Scottish

a Scot

Scots

the Scots

Scotland

Scotch

a Scotchman

Scotchmen

the Scotch



pag: 105


4. Articolul nehotarat (The Indefinite Article)


4.1. Forma articolului nehotarat


Articolul nehotarat are doua forme: a si an.

A se pronunta [_a_] (forma slaba, cand este neaccentuat), sau [ei] (forma tare cand este accentuat) si se foloseste inaintea cuvintelor care incep cu un sunet consonantic sau semiconsonantic: a buider, a magazine; a water-melon, a year.

An se pronunta [_a_n] (forma slaba) sau [_ae_n] (forma tare) si se foloseste inaintea cuvintelor care incep cu un sunet vocalic sau h mut: an architect, an egg, an orange, an hour, an heir, an honest man.


4.2. Functiile articolului nehotarat. Articolul nehotarat are mai multe valori. Acestea sunt:

1) functia epiforica, specifica articolului nehotarat, folosita pentru introducerea in comunicare a unei notiuni care nu a fost mentionata anterior: There is a young boy waiting for you. Te asteapta un baiat. I read an interesting novel last month. Am citit un roman interesant luna trecuta.

Functia epiforica a articolului nehotarat este folosita in situatiile in care obiectul sau persoana mentionata in comunicare este necunoscuta ascultatorului: A man came and knocked at our door. A venit un om si a batut la usa; sau in situatiile in care vorbitorul nu doreste sa determine definit obiectul sau persoana respectiva ci se refera doar la un membru al unei clase: I saw a cat on the stairs. Am vazut o pisica pe scara.

2) functia numerica, in situatiile in care forma a(n) are valoarea numeralului one.

Pentru a reda aceasta idee de numar gramatical (singularul), articolul nehotarat se foloseste:

- cu substantivele numarabile la singular, de obicei in serii numerice:

She bought a dress, two blouses and an umbrella.

A cumparat o rochie, doua bluze si o umbrela.

- cu numeralele (in locul lui one): a/one hundred; a/one thousand.


pag: 106


3) functia generica

Articolul nehotarat poate fi folosit si cu valoare generica, cu substantive numarabile la singular, pentru a reprezenta o intreaga clasa:

A cow gives us milk. Vaca ne da lapte.

4) articolul nehotarat este folosit si inaintea numelui predicativ exprimat printr-un substantiv:

He is a teacher. He was a headmaster.

He is a teacher. He became a headmaster.

He is a teacher. He remained a headmaster.


Atentie ! Articolul nehotarat nu se foloseste:

1) cu substantive nenumarabile

Comparati:

a) substantiv numarabil. I bought an iron yesterday. Am cumparat un fier de calcat ieri.

- substantiv nenumarabil. This fence is made of iron. Acest gard este din fier.

2) cu substantive numarabile la plural

Comparati:

- substantiv numarabil la singular: I watched an interesting film on TV last night. Am vazut un film interesant la televizor aseara.

- substantiv numarabil la plural: You can watch (some) interesting films on TV. Poti sa vezi (niste) filme interesante la televizor.

In cazul substantivelor numarabile la plural, determinarea nedefinita se realizeaza:

a) cu articolul zero: There are films on TV. Sunt filme la televizor.

b) cu ajutorul lui some sau any: There are some interesting films on TV. Sunt unele/niste filme interesante la televizor.


5. Articolul zero (The Zero Article)


5.1. In unele cazuri, substantivele nenumarabile, substantivele numarabile la plural si numele proprii par neinsotite de articol: She drinks tea every day. Clothes do not make the man. Bobby Charlton was a good football player.

In astfel de cazuri, absenta articolului echivaleaza ca functia cu prezenta unui articol. Acesta este de obicei numit articolul zero.


pag: 107


Este necesar sa distingem intre existenta unui articol zero si omisiunea articolului hotarat sau nehotarat, pentru ca articolul zero apare in situatii opuse celor in care se folosesc celelalte articole: I like chocolate. (Articolul zero pentru folosirea generica). Imi place ciocolata. The chocolate you bought is nice. Ciocolata pe care ai cumparat-o este gustoasa.


5.2. Functiile articolului zero


1) articolul zero indeplineste functia generica cu:

a) substantive nenumarabile

b) substantive numarabile la plural


I like milk / coffee.

I like music / literature/ geography / traveling

I like long walks / good friends / games.


a) articolul zero cu substantive nenumarabile indica o cantitate nedefinita, cantitatea in general: You can by sugar, flower, rice and oil at the grocer’s. Poti sa cumperi zahar, orez si ulei la bacanie.

Aceasta intrebuintare a articolului zero este des intalnita in proverbe si in limbajul stiintific: Haste makes waste. Graba strica treaba. Light travels faster than sound. Lumina se deplaseaza mai repede decat sunetul.

b) cu substantivele numarabile la plural articolul zero se refera la toti membri unei clase: Children like to play. Copiilor le place sa se joace.

2) Articolul zero este intrebuintat de regula pentru referinta unica a numelor proprii si a unor substantive comune in anumite contexte: Peter and Mary will go to school in autumn. La toamna Petre si Maria vor merge la scoala.

A. Urmatoarele clase de nume proprii se folosesc cu articolul zero:

a) Numele de persoane, insotite sau nu de apozitie: Peter, John Brown, Dr Smith.


pag: 108


b) diviziuni de timp:

- zilele saptamanii: Monday, Friday.

- lunile anului: april, may, june.

- sarbatorile: Liberation Day.

c) denumiri geografice:

- continente: Europe, Asia.

- tari: Romania, Bulgaria, Francia.

- orase: Bucharest, Edinburgh.

- lacuri: Lake Ontario, Loch Lomond.

- munti: Ben Nevis, Mount Everest.

d) numele proprii urmate de substantive comune, denumind cladiri, strazi, poduri, etc.: Bran Castle, Westminster Abbey, Oxford Street.

B. Unele substantive comune se folosesc cu articolul zero, avand referinta unica in anumite contexte situationale, intr-un mod similar cu numele proprii. Majoritatea acestor cuvinte intra in componenta unor expresii idiomatice, in care sunt folosite cu articolul zero. Unele dintre ele insa pot fi folosite si cu articolul hotarat in alte contexte:


pag: 109


FOLOSIREA UNOR SUBSTANTIVE COMUNE CU ARTICOLUL ZERO


Ce denumesc substantivele

Articolul zero

Articolul hotarat

Anotimpuri (in during)

in during -spring/summer/

autumn/winter

in the spring/summer/

autumn/summer

Anumite institutii (at, in, to, etc.)

be in/go to- bed/hospital (mai ales engleza britanica);

- class (mai ales engleza americana)/prison;


be at/go to - school/college/university;

be at/go home

be in/leave town

lie down on the bed

modernize the hospital

walk round the prison

walk past the school

be at/go to/study at the university (mai ales engleza americana)

approach the town;

Mijloace de transport (by)

travel/leave/come - by - bicycle/boat/bus/car/train/plane

sit omn the bicycle

be on the bus

sleep in the car

take the/a train

be on the plane

sit in the boat

Momente ale zilei si noptii (at,by,after,before)

at/before - dawn/daybreak/sunrise/sunset/dusk/twilight

at/around/before - noon/midnight

at/by - night

(by) day and night

during the day

admire the sunrise/sunset

see nothing in the dusk

in the afternoon

wake up in the night

in the daytime

Mesele zilei

have/before/at/after - breakfast/lunch/dinner/supper

Dinner will be served at 7.00.

The breakfast was good.

She cooked the dinner.

The dinner they offered us was very good.

Nume de boli

appendicitis

anaemia

diabetes

influenza

the plague

(the) flu

(the) measles

(the) mumps

Structuri paralele

arm in arm

hand in hand

day by day

face to face

from dawn to dusk

from morning till night

from beginning to end

from right to left

from east to west

He took her by the arm.

He has a book in his hand.

From the beginning of the book to the end of it.

Keep to the right.

He lives in the west.



pag: 110


Cu elementul predicativ suplimentar se foloseste articolul zero, pentru referinta unica:

They appointed him chairman. L-a numit presedinte

sau articolul hotarat pentru referinta unica: They appointed him the chairman of the standing commission.


Functiile articolului

Articolul

Functia

Exemple

Articolul hotarat

1. deictica

Turn on the radio, please.

Walk past the hospital and you’ll get to the railway station.


2. anaforica

I saw a play last night. The play was very interesting.


cataforica

I have managed to find the book on Romanticism.


4. generica

The family plays an important educational role.


5. cu unele nume proprii

The United Nations, the Parkers, the Rocky Mountains, The Missisippi, the North Sea, the English Channel, the Intercontinental Hotel, the Academy Library

Articolul nehotarat

1. epiforica

I saw a chimney sweep on the way to school.


2. numerica

Give me a pencil, a notebook and a rubber, please.


generica

A horse is a useful animal.


4. inaintea unui nume predicativ

He is a doctor.

Articolul zero

a) cu substantive nenumarabile (generic)

He likes milk/skiing.


b) cu substantive numarabile la plural (generic)

We go on long walks in the evening.


c) cu nume proprii

Mary Brown, President Kennedy, Daddy;

on Monday, in France, Oxford Street


d) in expresii idiomatice

It often snows in winter.

Go to bed! I go to school by bus.

See you at noon


e) cu elememntul predicativ suplimentar

They elected him President.



pag: 111



6. Omisiunea articolului (The Elypsis of the Article)


Exista unele situatii in care articolul hotarat sau nehotarat este omis. Aceste cazuri se deosebesc de cele in care se foloseste articolul zero, deoarece omiterea articolului nu produce modificari de sens ci are doar o valoare stilistica.


Comparati:

a) I like honey. Imi place mierea. (articolul zero = functia generica)

I like the honey they sell here. Imi place mierea care se vinde aici. (articolul hotarat the = referinta definita).


b) Take the honey to the children at the corner table ! Du mierea copiilor de la masa din colt !

Takes honey to children at corner table. Duce mierea copiilor de la masa din colt. (indicatii scenice).


Articolul se omite in urmatoarele situatii:

a) in vorbirea familiara: (It’s a ) Pity they won’t be there. Pacat ca nu vor fi si ei acolo. (Is the) Car still not working? Tot nu merge masina ? (A) Friend of mine told me about it. Un prieten de-al meu mi-a spus despre asta.


b) in limbajul jurnalistice: Employees have to obey safety regulations. Angajatii trebuie sa respecte regulile de protectie a muncii.


c) in indicatii scenice: (The) Old woman goes to (the) settee (on the) right. Batrana se indreapta spre canapeaua din dreapta (scenei).



pag: 112


Alti determinanti (Other Determiners)


7. Adjectivul demonstrativ (The Demonstrative Adjective)


In afara de articol, mai pot functiona ca determinanti ai substantivului: adjectivul demonstrativ, posesiv, interogativ si nehotarat.

Demonstrativul this/that, these/those este folosit ca determinant cand insoteste un substantiv: This book is more interesting than that one.

El poate fi insa folosit si ca pronume: What’s this ? Those are better than these.


7.1. Definitie. Determinantul demonstrativ, in terminologie traditionala adjectivul demonstrativ, determina un substantiv, indicand in principal apropierea sau departarea de vorbitor.

Adjectivul demonstrativ in limba engleza are categoria gramaticala de numar si indeplineste functia sintactica de atribut.


7.2. Forma. In limba engleza, adjectivul demonstrativ are forme deosebite dupa numar, dar nu dupa gen, ca in limba romana: this girl - these girls; aceasta fata - aceste fete.


7. Intrebuintare. Functiile demonstrativului this/that, these/those sunt:

a) functia deictica, de a indica orientarea in spatiu sau in timp intr-un context situational: These children, right here, are quieter than those.

This/these sunt folosite pentru a arata ca obiectele se gasesc in apropierea vorbitorului: This is my desk. These boys are my brothers.

That.Those sunt intrebuintate pentru a indica obiecte aflate la o mai mare departare de vorbitor: My father’s picture is on that wall. What are those children doing ?

That este utilizat pentru un obiect aflat la departare de vorbitor, mai ales cand acesta este in contrast cu alt obiect, apropiat vorbitorului, care este identificat prin this: This is my seat ant that is yours. I like these pictures much better than those.

Cand se refera la timp, demonstrativele this, these sunt corelate cu prezentul, iar that, those cu trecutul sau viitorul: She has been very busy these days. That storm destroyed everything last year.

b) functia anaforica, de referire la un obiect mentionat anterior: I saw our English teacher in his new car. This car is really something.

b)     functia cataforica, de referire la un obiect asupra caruia se fac precizari ulterioare: These little children are very pretty.


pag: 113


d) functia emotionala, de scoatere in evidenta a substantivului determinat: This Tom Brook is always playing the piano at night. Locked that door ?


Functiile demonstrativului:


Functia

Numar


Singular Plural

1. Deictica (context situational)

a) apropiere;

b) departare;

This book over here.

That book over there.

These books over here.

Those books over there.

2. Anaforica (context lingvistic)

Look at Mary’s dress!

This dress is really something.

Cataforica

Those old women are are always gossiping.

4. Emotionala

This neighbour of mine is always loosing his key.

Seen that film?





8. Adjectivul posesiv (The Posesive Adjective)


8.1. Definitie. Determinantul posesiv, in terminologie traditionala adjectivul posesiv, inlocuieste posesorul si determina numele obiectului posedat:

Peter’s stamp collection is very valuable.

His stamp collection is very valuable.

Adjectivul posesiv se acorda in gen si numar cu numele obiectului posedat:

Her book - cartea ei;

His bike - bicicleta lui;

Their toys - jucariile lor.

In propozitie, adjectivul posesiv indeplineste functia de atribut: My books are here on the table.


8.2. Forma. Adjectivul posesiv in limba engleza are forme diferentiate dupa persoana, numar si gen:


Persoana

Numar

Gen


Singular

Plural


I

my

our


II

your

your


III

his

her

its

their

masculin

feminin

neutru


La persoana a II-a singular si plural, adjectivul posesiv are aceeasi forma: Look, there is a fly in your soup. Priveste, e o musca in supa ta.


pag: 114


Genul este marcat doar la persoana a III-a singular: - his se refera la substantive nume de persoana de sex barbatesc:


John’s car is new.

The man’s car is new.

His car is new.

iar her se refera la substantive nume de persoana de sex feminin:

Mary’s umbrella is old.

The woman’s umbrella is old.

Her umbrella is old.


Its se refera la substantive animate (nume de animale) si inanimate (nume de obiecte):

The cat’s tail is long.

Its tail is long.

The door of the room is open.

Its door is open.


8. Intrebuintare. Adjectivul posesiv este folosit ca determinant al substantivului, inlocuind numele posesorului si determinand numele obiectului posedat:


John’s eyes are blue.

His eyes are blue.


Spre deosebire de demonstrativele this/that, these/those, care pot fi folosite atat ca determinanti (this book) cat si ca pronume (I want this) formele my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their nu pot fi folosite decat ca determinanti: is this your brother ?

Formele posesive pronominale in limba engleza sunt diferite de cele adjectivale:


Comparati:



Adjectiv posesiv

Pronume posesiv

This is my book.

That is your book.

That is her/his/its food.

This is our classroom.

That is their classroom.

This book is mine.

That book is yours.

That food is hers/his.

This classroom is ours.

That classroom is theirs.


pag: 115


Atentie! O situatie particulara in limba engleza, o prezinta substantivele denumind parti ale corpului (hand, head, bodz, leg) si articolele de imbracaminte (coat, umbrella, hat, shoes) care sunt intotdeauna precedate de adjectivul posesiv in limba engleza, spre deosebire de limba romana, unde el este de obicei omis. He has a hat on his head. Are o palarie pe cap. Lend me your umbralla, will you? Imprumuta-mi te rog umbrela (ta).


9. Adjectivul interogativ (The Interrogative Adjective)


9.l. Definitie. Determinantul interogativ, in terminologia traditionala adjectivul interogativ, determina numele obiectului asupra caruia se cer informatii: What English books have you read lately ?

Adjectivul interogativ are categoria gramaticala de caz: (G: whose) si poate indeplini functia sintactica de atribut: What joke did he tell you ?

sau de marca, introducand propozitii subordonate:

I asked him what English books he had read lately.


9.2. Forma. Din punct de vedere al flexiunii, who are forme flexionare pentru caz, iar which si what sunt invariabile.

Caz

Pronume



who

what

which

Nominativ

who

what

which

Genitiv

whose

what

which

Dativ

to whom (forma literara)

who to (vorbire curenta)

what

which

Acuzativ

whom (forma literara)

who (vorbire curenta)

what

which



9. Intrebuintare. Adjectivul interogativ este folosit ca determinant pe langa numele obiectului asupra caruia se cer informatii: What film did you see last night ?

What priveste obiectul respectiv fara referire la alte obiecte: What day is today ?

Which este selectiv: Which dress does she want ?

Whose se foloseste atat cu nume de persoane cat si cu nume de animale si obiecte: Whose pen did you borrow ? Whose walls did they paint ?

How much se refera la cantitate si se foloseste cu substantive nenumarabile concrete: How much money did you spend ? How much rice did you buy ?



pag: 116


How many se foloseste cu substantive nenumarabile: I don’t know how many exercises he wrote.

Unele interogative se folosesc si ca adjective si ca pronume:

Which book is more important ?

Which of these is more important ?

What (joke) did he tell you ? Whose (book) is this ?

Alte interogative se folosesc numai ca pronume: Who came first ? To whom did you write the letter?



10. Adjectivul nehotarat (The Indefinite Adjective)


10.1. Definitie. Determinantul nehotarat, in terminologie traditionala adjectivul nehotarat, determina substantivul intr-un mod global (all the books, every pupil) sau partial (each pupil, either side).


10.2. Forma. Adjectivul nehotarat este invariabil ca forma si indeplineste functia sintactica de atribut: Each pupil must do his homework.


10. Intrebuintare. Some. Adjectivul nehotarat some = ceva, niste, putina, unii, unele, cativa, cateva, vreun, vreo, se intrebuinteaza in propozitii afirmative si indica existenta unui numar restrans de lucruri, fiinte, a unei cantitati restranse. Este folosit cu substantive numarabile la plural si cu substantive nenumarabile la singular: There are some books on his desk. She bought some cheese.

Some poate fi folosit in proprozitii interogative in urmatoarele cazuri:

a) in propozitii in care se ofera un lucru: Will you have some cake ?

b) cand intrebarea nu se refera la some: Did she ask father to give me some money ?

Any. Any = vreun, vreo, nici un(ul), nici o, nici una, se intebuinteaza:

a) in propozitii afirmative cu sensul: oricare, orice: Any pupil in your form could in the question.

b) in propozitii interogative si negative: Did you meet any ? There isn’t any bytter in the fridge.

Adjectivele nehotarate each, every, either prezinta deosebiri de sens:

Every. Every se refera la membrii unui grup fara a-i individualiza: Every word of it is true. Fiecare cuvant este adevarat. The children engaged his every thought. Toate gandurile lui erau la copil.

Every este folosit si cu substantive denumind unitati de timp sau distanta pentru a indica caracterul repetat:

every other day - din doua in doua zile

every three days - din trei in trei zile


pag: 117


every now and then - din cand in cand

every other mile - din doua in doua mile


Every este folosit doar ca determinant. Impreuna cu -body, -one, -thing, -where formeaza pronume si adverbe nehotarate: everybody, everyone, everything si everywhere.

Each. Each se refera la membrii unui grup luati individual: Each pupil must bring some scrap iron to school. Fiecare copil (in parte) trebuie sa aduca fier vechi la scoala.

Each poate fi folosit si ca pronume: He talked with each of us. How much are these peaches ? Five pens each.

si cu referire la doua persoane: Each of these (two) children is right.

Either. Either = fiecare (din doi): There is no light at either end of the street. Nu este lumina la nici unul din capetele strazii.

Either poate fi folosit atat ca determinant, cat si ca pronume nehotarat.

Either este folosit curent cu substantivul side: There are trees on either side of the road. Sunt copaci pe ambele parti ale drumului.

In acest context, either este apropiat ca sens de both, diferenta fiind urmatoarea: both = amandoi (impreuna); either = fiecare din doi (separat).

Whatever was ridiculous in either character increased the aversion the reader had for both. Tot ceea ce era ridicol in fiecare dintre cele doua personaje marea aversiunea cititorului pentru amandoua.


10.4. Adjectivul negativ (The Negative Adjective Adjectivele negative sunt adjective nehotarate folosite in propozitii cu sens negativ si verbul la forma afirmativa. Ele sunt o subdiviziune a adjectivelor nehotarate, care indica absenta obiectelor sau a calitatilor acestora:

No = nici un(ul), nici una (din mai multe). No letter = nici o scrisoare. He has made no mistakes. Nu a facut nici o greseala.

Neither = nici unul din, nici un (din doi): I asked him two questions but he answered neither of them.

Neither poate fi folosit ca determinant sau ca pronume:

Neither solution is acceptable.

Neither (of these solutions) is acceptable.

No este folosit numai ca determinant, cu sensul de not any sau not a:

There are no letters today.

There aren’t any letters today

He was no fool

He was not a fool


Forma no este preferata lui not any/not a in vorbirea curenta.


pag: 118


Grupul nominal


Predetreminanti

Determinanti

(propriu-zisi)

Postdeterminanti


Adjectiv

Substantiv



Ordinale

Cuantificatori



both

my




children

all

the



new

pupils


the

first

three


pages

double

the




amount




a lot of

Romanian

students

one third

the




time


the

next

four


chapters


EXERCITII


I. Formulati propozitii cu cuvintele din paranteze pentru a exersa functia anaforica a articolului hotarat.


Exemplu

a) I have a letter and a postcard. (from my family).

The letter is from my family

b) She has some notebooks and textbook. (on the table).

The notebooks are on the table


1. He has a motorbike and a bicycle. (in the car-park). 2. She has a tent and a sleeping bag. (in the car).  I have a camera and some films. (in my bag). 4. Auntie has some bags and some parcels. (at the station).


II. Formulati propozitii cu cuvintele din paranteze pentru a exersa functia cataforica a articolului hotarat cu substantive nenumarabile si substantive numarabile la plural:

Exemplu

a) History can be interesting (of Romania).

The history of Romania is interesting.

b) Some coins are valuable. (he has)

The coins he has are valuable.


1. Music may be beautiful. (composed by George Enescu). 2. Some roads are dangerous. (in the mountains).  Stamps may be valuable. (in my collection). 4. Some films are interesting. (about animals). 5. Poems can be beautiful (he has written). 6. Some children are intelligent (I know). 7. Honey is delicios (I bought yesterday) 8. Wine can be vrey good (made in Romania). 9. Vegetable are usually fresh (they sell here). 10. Architecure may be impresive (of Bran Castle).



III. Treceti urmatoarele propozitii la plural, pentru a exersa functia generica a articolului zero.


Exemplu

The horse is a useful animal.

Horses are useful animals


1. The tiger is a wild animal. 2. The fly is an insect.  A chair is a piece of furniture. 4. A child likes sweets. 5. The elephant is a strong animal. 6. A fish can swim. 7. A city is a big town. 8. A tulip is a beautiful flower.



IV. Completati spatiile libere cu articole, acolo unde este cazul:

1. Peter Hill, who is.. Professor of History at.. University of Chicago, signed article. 2. They generally have breakfast at 8 o’clock.  It is not visible at .. night. 4. beauty is skin deep.5. milk she bought was sour. 6. Romania lies in east of Europe. 7. He translated the book from English into Romanian. 8. Is German language difficult to learn? 9. .Washington DC is capital of United States of America. 10. Open book at page ten and read question.11. foxes are not domestic animals. 12. She goes to school in morning. 1 Is your father worker_ 14. dog is domestic animal. 15. . Mississippi is largest river in North America. 16. Do you know where Lido hotel is? 17. It takes me hour to get to Ploiesti. 18. How many times week do you have Physics? 19. Do you like music? 20. Yes and I can play both piano and violin. 21. Byron English poet, was important representative of Rommanticism.


V. Raspundeti la urmatoarele intrebari folosdind articolul hotarat, nehotarat sau zero dupa cum este cazul:


1.     What kind of state is Romania? 2. Where does Romania lie?  What states does Romania border on? 4. What states does ROmania border on? 5. What is Bucharest? 6. What is Romania's population? 7. How many people live in Bucharest? 8. How many counties is Romania divided into? 9. Which is the longest river in Romania? 10. Which is the highest mountain in Romania? 11. What sea is ROmania bordered by to the south-east? 12. What lake or river is near your town/village? 1 What is the name of the most important mountain range in Romania? 14. What are the Carpatians divided into? 15. Where does the Transilvanian Tableland lie? 16. Where is the Danube Plain? 17. What town/villagedo you live in? 18. What street do you live in? 19. What important buildings are there in your town/village?



VI. Raspundeti la urmatoarele intrebari despre istoria Romaniei, folosind articolul hotarat, nehotarat sau yero, dupa cum este necesar:

1. Who are the ancestors of the Romanians? 2. Who was the most important Dacian king?  When did Dacia become a Roman province? 4. Which were the most important princes in medieval Romania? 5. What do we celebrate on January 24th? 6. When did Romania win its independence from the Turks? 7.When did capitalism begin to develop in Romania? 8. When did Romania enter the First World War? 9. When was the Romanian Communist Party set up? 10. What can you say about Romania`s participation in the Second World War?


VII. Traduceti in limba engleza:

A. 1. Ce zi frumoasa! 2. O duzina de ace costa un penny.  Trebuie sa vorbesti cu voce mai tare. 4. Ai venit cu autobuzul? 5. De cate ori pe saptamana ai fizica ? 6. Dunarea traverseaza mai multe tari europene. 7. Copiilor le plac foarte mult jocurile.


B. 1. La papetarie se vand stilouri, creioane, gume, paste de lipit si cerneala. 2. Unde este stiloul pe care l-am cumparat ieri?  Imi place muzica simfonica. 4. Imi place muzica compusa pentru pian. 5. La scoala studiem istoria poporului roman. 6. Studiem de asemenea istoria universala. 7. In Canada sunt doua limbi oficiale: engleza si franceza.


C. 1. Unde sunt ai tai? Bunicul e in pat, bunica e in bucatarie, mama e la scoala si tata e la serviciu. 2. De obicei merg acasa cu autobuzul, dar uneori merg cu tramvaiul.  Niciodata nu pot sa dorm in masina sau in tren. 4. Mama se trezeste deseori noaptea sa-i dea de mancare copilului.


VIII. Inlocuiti substantivele la genitiv cu adjectivele posesive corespunzatoare:

Exemplu:

The man`s hair is white.

His hair is white.


1. The boy`s shoes are dirty. 2. The women`s hat is pretty.  The women`s hats are pretty. 4. Where is the bird`s nest ? 5. The girl`s dress is new. 6. The man`s eyes are blue. 7. The pupils` books are on the desks.


IX. Raspundeti la intrebari conform modelului:

1. A: Which answer is right (wrong)?

B: This one is. That one`s wrong.

2. A: Which lessons are easy (difficult)?

B: These are. Those are difficult.


1. Which schoolbag is heavy? (light) 2. Which papers are important? (unimportant)  Which eggs are fresh? (bad) 4. Which glass is clean? (dirty) 5. Which story is interesting? (boring) 6. Which dress is new? (old) 7. Which apples are good? (bad)


X. Completati spatiile libere cu every, each sau either:

1. .. of the three lectures has a definite subject. 2. It is impossible to predict the issue with these two candidates: candidate may win.   few weeks she saw something new to buy. 4. I`ll be back in a minute, my dear aunt and uncle; he said nodded coolly to . 5. They were all men of ability, in his own way. 6. quest had a separate room. 7. O go to work day. 8. This must be decided by the individual judgement of reader.


XI. Traduceti in limba engleza:

- De ce dorm oamenii noaptea?

- Dar tu cand dormi Darie?

- Tot noaptea. Insa, vara mai ales, n-as dormi deloc.

- Dar ce-ai face?

- M-as culca pe iarba. Insa cu fata in sus m-as culca. As tine ochii deschisi. Daca s-ar putea sa nu clipesc, n-as clipi. As privi stelele. Si privindu-le, mi-as inchipui ca sunt liber.





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