The grammatical category of the verb: tense, aspect, voice and mood

The grammatical category of the verb: tense, aspect, voice and mood.

The English verb has grammatical forms determined by its categories of person, number, tense, aspect, mood, voice. Depending on the presence or absence of the first three categories (person, number, tense), the verbal forms are divided into finite and non-finite. A finite form of the verb displays contrasts in person, number, tense, mood; it can occur on its own in a sentence forming its predicate. A finite verb Phrase is a Verb Phrase which contains a finite verb form:

“He studies English.”

In a more complex finite Verb Phrase (made up of several verbs) the first verb is the only one that is finite, the others are non-finite:

“He is studying English” (is=finite verb form; studying=non-finite verb form)

The non-finite forms of the verb are represented by the Infinitive, the –ING forms (Present Participle, Gerund) and –ED forms (Past Participle). The non-finite forms lacks person, number, tense, contrasts. It cannot form the predicate in a sentence by itself; it occurs on its own only in subordinate/ dependent clauses (clauses without a finite verb):

“Being tired, he went to bed early”. (As he was tired, he went to bed early.)

(Being=non-finite verb, went=finite verb)

The category of aspect

It can be defined as a grammatical category characteristic of the verb, which shows how the action rendered by the verb is expressed; it shows whether the action is complete or still in progress. The grammatical aspect of verbs comprises various morphological forms of the verb which imply the duration of the action or of the state it expresses.

There are two aspectual oppositions in English:

Perfective vs. Non –Perfective.

Progressive vs. Simple

The Indefinite /Common Aspect is represented by moods and tenses constructed in accordance with a number of peculiar patterns, e.g.: the present indefinite coincides with the short infinitive, excepting the third person singular; the present perfect indefinite is formed of the present of “ to have” and the past participle of the verb to be conjugated (I have asked). The Indefinite Common Aspect denotes an action stressing the idea that it develops in time. It indicates that an event was accomplished ( perfected or completed) at/ before a given point in time: before present (NOW), before past( THEN), before future.

The Progressive (Continuous) aspect describes an action in progress at a given time (past, present, future). The action is temporary, it does not last long, it happens during a limited period of time. The Continuous aspect is formed of a tense of the auxiliary verb “TO BE” and the indefinite participle of the verb to be conjugated.

The Simple aspect refers to an action which is “complete” or is used when the duration of the action is irrelevant (the action is thought of as a bare statement). In order to be able to analyze the contrast between the Simple and the Continuous Aspect, as a grammatical feature of verbs, we should analyze their lexical aspect, because there is a close relationship between their lexical aspect (their meaning) and their grammatical aspect. This relationship refers to the fact that the lexical aspect of a verb may determine its grammatical aspect, may determine whether the verb can be used in Progressive Aspect or not. Thus, on account on their meaning, some verbs do not normally occur in the Continuous Aspect.

Classification of full/ lexical verbs from the point of view of their lexical aspect.

There are two classes of verbs: Dynamic (Activity/ Action) verbs and State (Stative) verbs.

Dynamic verbs describe actions that happen in a limited time, having a definite beginning and end. They are normally used in the Continuous Aspect. These verbs can be subdivided into:

a)     Durative verbs – verbs denoting actions that last in time: read, write, work. This is a class of verbs typically used in the Continuous aspect.

“He is reading a book”. (the Continuous aspect is used to express an action in progress at the present moment.)

“He seldom reads books” (the Simple form is used because the duration of the action is irrelevant).

“I’m living with my aunt at present”. (the Continuous aspect implies an action of limited duration-something that doesn’t last long, taking place around a point in time.)

“ I have mended the car this morning”. (the job is finished , complete, the continuous aspect refers to activity in progress and therefore suggests not only that the activity is temporary but that it need not be complete.)

“I have been mending the car this morning.” (but the job may not be finished; incomplete; the continuous forms are often used to suggest an incomplete action, while the Simple forms are used to express a complete action.)

b)     Non-durative (Momentary) verbs: verbs denoting momentary events, actions that occur in a fraction of time, actions that are completed almost at the same time they are performed: catch, find, hit, jump, kick, knock, nod, slam, etc.

“He nodded”

“The boy jumped for joy”. (since these verbs have no duration, they cannot normally be used in the continuous aspect.)

On the other hand, when these non-durative verbs are used in the Continuous aspect, they denote a repeated action ( a series of events).

“He nodded”.( one single movement of the head)

“He was nodding”. (repeated movements of the head in a certain span of time.)

State (Stative) verbs describe states which continue over a period of time. They denote an unlimited , permanent duration of an action. Verbs that do not have a Continuous form because they describe a state-verbs not normally used in the Continuous forms-can be subdivided into the following classes:

a)     Relational verbs- verbs which express the idea of being or possessing: be, belong, consist, comprise, contain, deserve, have, include, owe, possess, require, etc.

“He has/ owns/ possesses a house

“This book belongs to my friend

b)     Verbs of inert (involuntary) perception: are verbs which refer to actions of the senses: feel, hear, look, notice, smell, taste (are not normally used in the Continuous aspect).:

PROIECT: Absurdul - categorie estetico-literara derivata din cultivarea in fertilele PROIECT: INCEPUTURILE LITERATURII CULTE (primii scriitori „profesionisti”)

“I feel (like) an absolute fool.”

“I see a car coming towards us.”

“Listen! I hear a noise.”

c)      Verbs of inert cognition (verbs of thinking, referring to the activity of the mind): believe, consider, doubt, forget, expect, guess, imagine, know, mean, realize, suppose, think, understand:

“They understand my problem now.”

“I believe he is the man I am looking for.”

“I remember my first summer holiday

A number of English verbs, especially when used in certain meanings, cannot be conjugated in the continuous tenses. Thus:

The verb TO BE , when a state or quality of long duration (or a permanent characteristic) is implied. On the other hand, it may be employed in the continuous aspect to express a temporary state or quality:

“John is being cheeky”. (now, usually he is not).

Verbs expressing feelings and attitudes, such as: to like, to love, to prefer, to hate, to dislike, to loathe, to object, etc.

“She will not object to being examined earlier”.

“I dislike his behavior”.

In colloquial English some of these verbs are used in the Continuous aspect to underline the ideal denoted by them or to show that the feeling is only temporary.

“ Look at this painting! I’m loving it.” (I am enjoying it very much)

The category of voice

Voice is a morphological category expressing the relation between the subject and the direct object in a sentence.

Active Voice shows that the action is performed by the grammatical subject:

“Ernest James wrote “Song of the Wage””

Passive Voice shows that the action is suffered by the grammatical subject (which is in the nominative case, although logically it should have been in the accusative- thus, a direct object).

“The books had been sent earlier by the librarian.”

Whenever an active voice form is turned into a passive voice form, the direct object of the active construction becomes the subject of the passive construction, while the subject of the active construction becomes an object with the preposition BY (an object of agency or instrument):

“The man sawed the log into two.”

“The log was sawn in two by the man.”

The passive is made up of a form of “to be” and the past participle of the verb to be conjugated:

“She had been asked.”

“The lesson will be repeated.”

This voice is far more frequently used in English than in Romanian, particularly in scientific-technical texts. Consider the following sentences borrowed from a single page of a technical text:

“If the motion is reserved (se inverseaza)…is regarded (e considerat, se considera) positive…The motions of bodies may be divided (se pot imparti) into three classes…A body is said ( se spune) to have a motion of translation when…”

Note the frequent rendering of passive forms by Romanian reflexives. More passive forms are used in contemporary English not only in comparison with Romanian, but also in comparison with the earlier stages of the English language itself: there is a growing tendency to make the person or thing spoken of the subject of a verb in the passive voice. As a rule, different languages form their passive voice from a transitive verb:

“Citesc o carte –cartea e citita de mine.”

“Je l’ai vu –il e été vu par moi.’’

'Ich beautworte die Frage- die Frage ist von mir beautwortet.’’

The English language also observes this general principle ( I am reading a book –A book is being read by me ), but “ it may be also form passive constructions from intransitive verbs”:

“ The doctor has been sent for.”

“This essay is often referred to.”

“This room has not been slept in for a long time.”

Other intransitive verbs frequently used in the passive : “ to allude to, to comment upon, to depend on, to dispose of, to look at, to make fun of, to pay attention to, to set fire to, etc.”

When is the passive voice used?

Although the meaning of an active construction (“John is learning the lesson.”) does not differ from its passive counterpart (“The lesson is learnt by John.”) , they cannot be considered perfect (or absolute) synonyms , particularly because of the stress.

The use of the passive voice is determined mainly by one of the following causes:

With omission of the active subject.

1.     When it is difficult to establish the active subject:

“The island had probably been discovered earlier.”

2.     When for some reason or other, the speaker does not want to mention the active subject

“This problem has already been dwelt upon in a previous chapter of the present work.” (modesty of the author- the author does not want to speak about himself)

3.     When the speaker does not consider it necessary to mention the active subject, laying stress on the verb:

“You’ll be scolded for that , Jack.” (by your father, by your teacher, etc)

4.     When the active subject is easily understood from the context:

“The teacher explained the rule. Two or three examples were given (by the teacher), after which some of the boys answered the question.”

With presence of the active subject

1.     When the passive subject is the all-important element in the sentence, particularly when it is anaphoric:

“George is a very diligent scholar.”

“He is often praised by his teachers.”

2.     When, on the contrary, the all-important element in the sentence is the active subject and the speaker wants to compare it.

“The paper has been written by John.”(not by Mary, not by anyone else)

An important recommendation is to use the passive is presenting ideas and generalizations and to use it sparingly in descriptions or in narratives.

The category of mood

Mood is a grammatical category by means of which modality is expressed, it is a form showing the way in which the speaker considers the action denoted by the verb. Both in Old English and in Middle English there were three moods (according to most grammarians): the indicative, the imperative and the subjunctive. In contemporary English the situation is far more complex. “The question of the number and nomenclature of Moods in contemporary English,” says B.A. Ilyish , “is not solved…” The solution considerably depends on whether we should study Moods forms from the point of view of the meaning…or from the point of view of the forms themselves. The problem is all the more complex as in contemporary English certain Moods forms are about to disappear , without, however, having disappeared altogether…”

That there is no question or non-finite moods (“infinitivul, participial, etc”) in English morphology seems to be one of the few standpoints in conjunction with which there is some agreement. Still disagreement characterizes the very first major problem-the exact number of moods (by way of illustrations, let us mention that Deutschbein distinguishes 16 moods, whereas Bergen Evans has only 3 and Palmer none!). for didactic rather than strictly scientific reasons we shall be speaking of 4 moods: The indicative, The Conditional, The Subjunctive, and The Imperative. This classification is justified by a certain parallelism with Romanian grammar and by the conception that all personal forms of the verb may be included in one of the above categories, provided the definitions of the various moods are comprehensive enough.

1.     The Indicative Mood-shows that the speaker considers the action as real

“She wrote the letter yesterday.”

“They go jogging everyday.”

2. The Conditional Mood –shows that the speaker considers the action as conditioned or desirable.

“If the weather is fine, we would go for a walk.”

“I would like to leave immediately.”

3. The Subjunctive Mood- shows that the speaker considers the action as a supposed fact.

“It is high time we went home.”

“He works day and night as if he were a madman.”

4. The Imperative Mood- denotes an order, a piece of advice, a request.

“Stop talking.”

“Let’s go now.”

In contemporary English the Imperative is only considered a second person form. The subject is an unexpected “you” –write! (you), etc

According to a number of grammarians, such forms as “Let me think” or “Let us sit down” are not purely imperatival. The Indicative, Conditional, Subjunctive and Imperative moods are also called finite forms of the verb. The non-finite forms include:

-the infinitive (long infinitive or bare infinitive)

“to go, to stay, to remain, etc.”

-the present participle (=-ing form)

“working, stopping, going, etc”

-the gerund (=ing form)

“working, amazing, regarding, etc”

-the past participle: “amazed, bored, interested, annoyed, tried, studied, learned, etc”

NOTE: the present participle and the gerund called with one term the –ing form are identical in form but different in uses.

The category of tense

The categories of tense and aspect are closely interrelated in English. The most frequent meaning of the term “tense” is that associated with the verb forms of the Indicative Mood. The category of tense delimits the part of the speech called the verb and, like the categories of aspect and mood; it does not characterize any other part of speech. A common mistake in approaching the category of tense is the belief that tense inflections alone mirror time. At the level of natural languages, beside tense inflections marked upon the verb, temporal adverbials and temporal adverbial phrases contribute to the temporal specifications of sentence. The generally accepted definition of the category of tense explains tense as representing the chronological order of events in time as perceived by the speaker at  the moment of speaking. This definition makes use of a number of undefined notions such as time, chronological order, moment of speaking which must be clarified to grasp the impart of the definition.

The notion of “objective” time

The notions of change and motion- the latter understood as change of place- are possible only through and in the representation of time. For example, the presence of a thing in one place and the non-presence of the same thing in the same place can be perceived by a human subject if and only if these two contradictory properties are placed sequentially, one after another, that is TIME. In other words, time is not something that has existence of itself or something that is inherent to objects; rather it is a form or a condition of our perception of the situations in the world.

Time does not have absolute reality outside the form of our perception of the world; it is not inherent to objects, but it pertains to the perceiving subject. In this sense, we do not say that objects are in time but that objects as objects-of –our-perception are in time; in this sense, then time has empirical reality. This is the form of our experience of the world; these observations lead to the idea that time is an epistemic notion, not an anthological one.

“Personal time” represents man’s endeavor to measure duration by using his emotions as an instrument. Consider the same clock-period of time measured by the emotions of a hungry child and its busy mother. There is clearly no agreement between different persons how long a long time is.

The notion of “axis of orientation”

To be able to order perceived events one has to set them in relation to another event with respect to which they occur either before or after or simultaneously with it. An event that serves as an orientation criterion for other events is said to create an “axis of orientation”. Thus, an axis of orientation has o source event relative to which a chronological order can be established for the perceived events: they can be either taking place simultaneously with the source event of the axis (at relation), or they can occur sequentially (before/after relations).

The question is what kind of events can serve as source for axes of orientation. Evidently, natural cosmic phenomena which serve as a basis for public time segments serve as source events for axes of orientation as well. Cosmic events like sunrise, nightfall, the stages of the noon serve as source events for public axes.

The Moment of Speech as primary axis of orientation

Time is being inferred from the perception of seriality of events relative to an assumed axis of orientation. The moment of speaking is the one which “locates” the speaker in time and relative to the speech event, other events are present, past and future. This explains why man can deal with events in three different ways, perceive them, recollect them or anticipate them.

In other words, at the present point (PP) man can contemplate time bidirectionally, he may look back and recollect events or he may project events as being simultaneous with PP. The present point NOW which is the moment of initiating a discourse is the source event that creates an axis of orientation, the axis of present.

PP

∞←────────────────×─────────────────→∞

now

the axis of the present

Once it becomes a fleeting point, the PP passes into a sphere of recollected events and it becomes a retrospective point (RP) as a new PP emerges, the RP is the source event that creates the axis of the past.

PP

∞←──────────────────×──────────────────→∞

now

RP

∞←────────×─────────────────────────────→∞

then

The time sphere “after “the present point can be conceived in two alternative ways: either we consider time-to-come from the perspective of the PP, on the axis of the present point, or at the PP we anticipate a point, anticipating a point, AP, which creates an axis of orientation, the axis of the future. This axis of the future is bounded by the point NOW, it cannot extend further away.

PP

∞←─────────────×────────────→ ∞      present

now AP

│───────×─────→∞     future

PP

∞←──────×────────────────────→∞     past

then

Bull , W. (1971) shows that it should be obvious that, at this level, we are dealing with an open system in which the projectional possibilities are theoretically infinite. From each axis, man can always go on to another and still another axis , he may recall that he anticipated, that he would recall anticipating recalling anticipation.

The category of time is deictic, one of the means of grammaticalizing features of the context of utterance; more specially , the moment NOW of initiating speech is central in the sense that time past or time future represent directions whose orientation depend on it.